The Mau Mau Uprising

In 1952 a Kikuyu secret society, the Mau Mau, began an uprising against colonial rule. In practice, however, much of the violence was directed against other Kikuyu. During the next four years, 13,000 Kikuyu were killed compared with just over 30 Europeans. Although the uprising did not spread to other tribes, it cost the government dearly in security operations and caused a political crisis. KAU was banned and its leader, Kenyatta, was imprisoned for alleged complicity in Mau Mau.

However, the colonial authorities had to face the inevitability of change. By 1956, when the violence ended, they had abandoned their pro-settler policies. Africans were beginning to be involved in government, in a process--like that already taking place in West Africa--which would lead to majority rule and independence. A new African political party, the Kenya African National Union (KANU), was formed and won a majority of seats in a pre-independence general election held in 1961. However, KANU refused to form a government while Kenyatta was still in prison. Released in 1961 he led the party to a decisive election victory in 1963. Kenya became an independent state on December 12, 1963.

Independence

Despite the fears of white settlers, African rule proved moderate, pro-Western, and progressive. Although Kenya by the late 1960s was in practice a one-party state, considerable freedom was permitted within the party, and the government seldom misused its powers. Land redistribution--though biased in favour of the Kikuyu--quietened much of the clamour of Kenya's traditional leaders. Kenya became a republic in 1964, with Kenyatta as its first president.

Kenyatta's Rule

Kenyatta sought to maintain good relations with Kenya's neighbours although this was difficult at times, especially with the regime of Idi Amin in Uganda. The East African Community, an economic union of the three countries established in 1967 and considered a promising start for political unification, was gradually phased out. In the early 1980s the community's former members considered reviving it, and finally did so in January 2001.

Kenyatta's moderate, stable government attracted large-scale foreign investment. A new industrial area was established near Thika, and central Nairobi was modernized. The tourist industry, based on Kenya's great national wildlife reserves, expanded rapidly to become the single most important source of foreign exchange. Kenyatta was recognized at the time of his death in 1978 as Mzee, (the wise old one), not only by his own people but by a wide array of world leaders.

Kenya After Kenyatta

Fears of possible civil war between Luo and Kikuyu groups when Kenyatta died proved unfounded, and his successor, Daniel Arap Moi--a Kalenjin--initially followed the same moderate political and economic policies. However, in June 1982 he made Kenya officially a one-party state. Two months later an attempt by air force units to oust him was crushed by loyal troops. As the 1980s progressed, the government faced a rising tide of criticism from both inside and outside the country. Many of Moi's leading Kenyan critics were jailed.

Ethnic Violence

In late 1991 the world's major lending institutions and several Western governments suspended economic aid to Kenya, as a way of forcing Moi's government into political and economic reforms. Opposition parties were subsequently legalized and Kenya's first multi-party elections for 26 years were held in December 1992. Moi and KANU were returned with a comfortable majority. However, the election--in which all sides capitalized on tribal loyalties--unleashed a torrent of ethnic violence, much of it directed against the once-privileged Kikuyu. Tens of thousands of people had been driven from their homes and hundreds killed by the middle of the decade. At the same time, the government continued to harass opposition groups and harsh economic reforms were introduced at the insistence of aid donors. They included a welcome crackdown on corruption, but also led to spiralling inflation, increased unemployment, and massive cutbacks in public services.

The outcome of the election held in 1997 was a predictable victory for Moi, following disputes between the opposition parties. This led to a breakdown of their alliance in November. After a controversial presidential election in December, marred by delays in vote registrations and counting, the ruling party's majority in parliament was much reduced.

Flooding, Drought, Terrorism, and Corruption

In 1998 at least 86 people died in floods along a stretch of the highway between Nairobi and Mombasa. Agriculture was badly affected, with sugar cane and wheat left rotting in flooded fields. Tourism was under threat as a result of the flooding on roads cutting off tourist lodges and camps, and also by an outbreak of Rift Valley Fever spreading from the north-east to the central provinces.

In February 1998 more than 300,000 people, mostly Kikuyus or members of other tribes associated with the opposition, were forced out of Rift Valley province by apparently orchestrated violence. This stemmed from unresolved land claims dating from the colonial period and has allowed KANU, the ruling party, to consolidate its power, particularly in Rift Valley province, which has the largest number of parliamentary seats. US Embassy buildings in Nairobi, Kenya, and Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, were bombed in August, with responsibility for the attacks being claimed by a previously unknown Islamic terrorist group. The blast killed some 240 people and injured more than 5,000 others. Kurdish leader Abdullah Ocalan was captured in Nairobi by Turkish commandos in February 1999, and returned to Turkey to be tried on murder and terrorist charges.

In an effort to achieve political stability, President Moi appointed Richard Leakey, a white palaeoanthropologist and politician, as head of Kenya's civil service, in July 1999. Leakey had founded the opposition party Safina in 1995. In September Moi attempted to streamline his government, reducing the number of ministers from 27 to 15. Presidential powers were, however, considerably reduced by the act of the National Assembly passed in November.

The economic situation in Kenya was burdened in 2000 by power and water shortages as a result of a serious drought, the worst for 30 years. The late onset of the rainy season did little to alleviate the problem. In addition, foreign aid was hard to come by; many donors were being deterred by Kenya's deteriorating corruption record. Further trouble broke out when Moi announced that large tracts of forestland would be allocated to squatters and local authorities. Protesters foresaw increased environmental problems and opportunities for exploitation.

In January 2001, Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania finally succeeded in reviving the East African Community. This economic grouping, last in existence in 1977, aimed to improve trade between the three countries and encourage investment in the area as a whole. Further efforts were made to establish stronger links between Kenya and its neighbours at a meeting between Moi and President al-Bashir of Sudan, where they called for an East African body to help bring peace to the region.

In March 2001 the IMF extended its withholding of loans from Kenya, declaring it would not resume payments until it was satisfied that more progress had been made to institute privatization schemes and stamp out corruption. Around the same time, Richard Leakey and three other top civil servants left the anti-corruption team which, it had been hoped, would entice back foreign investment.